Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The artificial intelligence industry in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms emphasizing science and technology as the country’s main efficient force.

The initial stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and experienced significant obstacles due to lack of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind the majority of Western nations in terms of AI development. A bulk of the research study was led by researchers who had gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has steadily developed a national program for synthetic intelligence advancement and emerged as one of the leading countries in expert system research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to end up being a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company should lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI development has significantly affected Chinese society in lots of areas, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and production are the top markets that would be the most impacted by additional AI deployment.

The personal sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in numerous elements as there are few current existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first national law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade limitations intended to limit China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the development of generative artificial intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and technology for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and advancement did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists introduced AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was challenging so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on artificial intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have become part of China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has even more broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study jobs has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the advancement of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, expert system was likewise pointed out in the l lth five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of artificial intelligence. The first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a significant milestone in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a strategic innovation that has actually become a “focus of global competition”. [14]:2 The file prompted significant investment in a variety of strategic areas associated with AI and called for close cooperation between the state and economic sectors. On the occasion of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is a necessary component to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The very same year saw the introduction of numerous application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council stated the need for huge talent acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, in addition to public and private investments. [14] Some of the specified inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI technique include the capacity of artificial intelligence for commercial improvement, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system broadened to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the development of large language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese researchers started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s very first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly released the policies worrying deepfakes, which ended up being efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services security requirements, including requirements for information collection and design training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed concern over AI safety dangers, including abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started using news anchors created with generative expert system to provide fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which intends to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The 4th and fifth largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been authorized by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be important to the future of global military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its place as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the main driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have established a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “seeks to combine state planning and control while some functional flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, producing asymmetric advantages as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a top research priority and ranks AI initially among “frontier industries” that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing primarily concentrated on sophisticated and applied research study. [38] The government funding also supported numerous AI R&D in the private sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study showed that, while China is enormously purchasing all elements of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s modern commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and local commercial advancement and ecosystem. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play an essential role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and global collaborations and jobs with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had actually completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and imposing responsibilities on AI business, the overall approach to its policy is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population generates a huge quantity of available data for companies and scientists, which offers a crucial advantage in the race of huge information. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of web users, creating big quantities of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is among the most commonly utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of information from its residents helps further train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not just conducive and valuable for corporations to additional AI R&D however likewise offers significant financial prospective bring in both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the details and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft measures stating that tech companies will be obligated to guarantee AI-generated material supports the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, business bear legal obligation for training data and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not “incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language design to the general public, companies need to look for approval from the CAC to certify that the design declines to address specific questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh must be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries containing training data sets typically used for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local business with training information that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually cautioned that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to answer concerns relating to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial influence on China’s long-term financial growth. In the past, traditional industries in China have actually had problem with the increase in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, operational costs are expected to lower while a boost in effectiveness produces income growth. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental support in order to overcome adoption barriers including expenses and lack of effectively trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI development due to the fact that of rising demands for laborers with advanced abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development might be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial development is focused in coastal areas rather than inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to construct a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific concentrate on the usage of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is investigating different types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing vehicles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards showed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and ruining a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of a widening “generational space” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to use AI for making use of large chests of intelligence, generating a typical operating image, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, decision support, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, couple of borders exist between Chinese industrial companies, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of assisting AI advancement priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly developed for civilian purposes. To even more reinforce these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business business and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of data identifying to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the prospective to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily pertinent AI applications, potentially giving it legal access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from rival or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has been investing, including “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly since China deals with obstacles in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have been operating in the field for over ten years, while approximately the exact same proportion of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research products. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China especially want to resolve military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently established the very first children’s academic program in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific emphasis on user protection, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles requiring vital needs in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many nationwide federal governments have developed legislation dealing with information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to address brand-new challenges raised by AI advancement. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework categorizing all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech business in China are needed to categorize their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and handle information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the proof provided and applies appropriate legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach impartial decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology business may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has sought to motivate personal tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s dedication to worldwide AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained reasons for China’s anxiety towards securing an international technological supremacy – China missed both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to make the most of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the national renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities demonstrated remarkably keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise prioritize cultivating expertise and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale essential modification.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unrivaled resources and massive untapped potential, but the West has world-leading expertise and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI produces difficulties for holistic national security, including the threats that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing impacts on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will cause greater oppression of employees and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital build-up and political power in fewer economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the main responsible star in the area of generative AI (creating new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI risks intensifying military competition between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country however will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential danger from artificial intelligence have actually occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is typically optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed throughout 28 countries found that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI surpass the dangers, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% agreed or highly agreed that AI will do more excellent than harm for society, and 31% thought it should be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial recognition has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, deployment of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang region to discover Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a federal government intentionally using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of unrest are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, particularly by regional municipal police departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of artificial intelligence companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.